AP Comp Gov - Mexico: Revolution Ends, Change Begins Questions

Revolution Ends, Change Begins

1. The PRI took control in 1929 – what examples of democratization have taken place in Mexico since that time?

Mexico has become significantly more democratic since 1929. The population has changed from being two-thirds rural to being three-quarters urban. The economy has become much more open, while it was previously protectionist and state-dominated. Mexican exports and trade have increased, inflation has decreased, and its economy has stabilized after a quarter-century of turmoil. The addition of a competition agency and human rights commission help to protect citizens. Additionally, the press is now independent of the government, and the courts, central bank, and electoral authorities have become more independent. The largest factor in Mexico’s democratization was the peaceful transition from the PRI to the PAN as Vicente Fox was made president.

2. What are the pros and cons of the PRI’s lack of a concrete platform? Why is it considered a “perfect dictatorship”?

Because the PRI had no concrete platform, it never had an ideology, and anyone could join. This gave it the ability to adapt as the times changed, and allowed a range of presidents from all backgrounds and political dogmas to gain power. It included trade unions, peasant groups, youth movements—all of which made it stronger. Additionally, it rarely used repression, co-opted trade unions by giving their leaders money and power, won the support of peasants by redistributing land, essentially bribed newspapers, and was a patron of the arts. While all of this helped the PRI stay in power, there were also negatives associated with the PRI’s lack of concrete platform. Because there was no central dogma and anyone could join, its followers were split, as was economic growth among them—this created the “two Mexicos” the article talks about.

It’s a “perfect dictatorship” in that it appeared to be a democracy, as a president that couldn’t be reelected headed it, but in every other way it functioned as a dictatorship. The government outwardly had all the characteristics of a democracy, but because the PRI was so widespread and controlled who was elected, the president had almost absolute power.

Fox’s Mexico: Same as It Ever Was?

1. The author Pamela Starr is critical of Fox’s first year as President of Mexico. Keeping in mind the challenges he faced and what he did and didn’t accomplish – do you agree with the author’s perspective? Explain your reasoning, citing specific pieces of evidence.

Though the author makes legitimate points, overall, I disagree with her opinion that Fox’s administration was disappointing. As the first president from a party other than the PRI for the first time in over 70 years, it’s only natural that Fox would face many challenges and that his presidency would be anything but smooth sailing. However, despite the many challenges he faced, he managed to pass two austere budget laws through Congress and get elements of financial reform approved. Though ultimately unable to convince the Zapatista rebels in Chiapas to initiate peace negotiations, he did manage to pass a new law on indigenous people, which was his top legislative priority. This, if nothing else, shows that they were dedicated to sticking to their word. The author does address this point, saying that Fox changed his mind several times, notably concerning the proposed 15% tax on food, medicines, and books. While Fix did eliminate the tax from his proposal, does not necessarily mean that it was the result of negotiation with Carlos Fuentes. It may be that Fox realized a potential detrimental affect of the tax, and was willing to look indecisive in order to protect the people (though this is speculation). The author also states that the executive branch’s organization into three groups concerning quality growth, order and respect, and social development “deepened confusion and inconsistency within the administration.” However, I would argue that this separation of powers is a step in furthering Mexico’s democracy, and that of course any new, major change in government is not going to function perfectly from the outset. I believe that the author makes valid points all around; however, I also think that she fails to recognize that making changes in one year from over 70 years of essential dictatorship is easier said than done.

2. Political parties have a complex history in Mexico. How did the three parties themselves add to the difficulties of Fox’s first year in office? Specifically address the PAN, PRD, and PRI.

The PRD was very unsupportive of Fox and therefore has opposed his legislative agenda consistently. It believes that the transition from the PRI to the PAN brought few changes in policy, and does not make an effort to collaborate with the government because it remains a minority in the legislature. Specifically, it opposes the market based economy strategy Fox continued, and has a deep-seated mistrust of Fox’s ultimate objectives. As a minority party, it has little incentive to work with the legislature, especially because it does not have enough votes to build a majority even when combined with those of the PAN.

Adjusting to its new role as the opposition, the PRI has also been unsupportive of Fox’s presidency. Because it’s the dominant opposition force, not much can be achieved without its cooperation. Policy differences, attempts to organize itself, and the chaos created by the three competing centers of power make it hard to get anything done, and even harder for Fox. The PRI power centers have made demands of the government, but due to internal party politics, they were unable to give up anything in return. Additionally, these internal struggles have prevented them from supporting any controversial policy positions.

Though Fox was elected as a member of the PAN, his relationship with it has not been smooth. He did not get along with Diego Fernandez de Cevallos, the leader of the dominant traditionalist faction, and established a campaign structure independent of the party. He appealed to voters directly, and later forced the PAN to accept his candidacy. He made little effort to involve the PAN in governing, which did little to ease their fears of becoming a party controlled by the presidency, much like the PRI. As a result of this fear, it has been hesitant to fully support Fox and his legislative proposals. For the first few months, it operated as if it were the opposition, particularly concerning Fox’s proposal to increase the autonomy of indigenous communities, which Fox based his legislative measure on.

3. The author makes the argument that “the Fox administration drew heavily on tactics designed in advanced democracies but ineffective in a fledgling democratic order.” What tactics is she describing and why did they not work in Mexico?

It can only be expected that Mexico’s new truly democratic regime would not be perfect after over 70 years of an essentially authoritarian government. Therefore there have been many failed ventures that would have likely worked in advanced democracies, but did not in Mexico. For example, Fox’s attempt to transform PEMEX into an autonomous firm managed on the basis of market principles faced many obstacles, largely due to his appointment of businessmen to the administrative board. Additionally, the announcement that Mexico would fully support the US after 9/11 produced nationalist backlash and unease. Fox’s cabinet also faced problems—each minister was highly independent, which led to conflict and no policy coordination.

AP Comp Gov - Mexico's Long March to Democracy Questions

Mexico’s Long March to Democracy

1. What are the reasons that allowed the PRI to maintain power so long? How did they orchestrate such a broad constituency?

The PRI, though hated in the end, stayed in power largely due to their achievements while in power. PRI leaders pacified and united the country after the 1910 revolution, putting together a national identity and controlling the armed forces. They established universal primary education, subsidized public universities, promoted industrialization, urbanization, and a strong middle class. By promising political stability, health care, land reform, temporary rural employment programs, and programs to help the poor, the PRI won support from the suffering peasant, indigenous, and urban poor classes.

2. Why did the political legitimacy of the PRI begin to fade?

According to the article, the 1968 massacre of 300 protesting students in Mexico City was the watershed event that exposed the brutality of the PRI regime. The PAN party’s inception in 1980 drew supporters away from the PRI, made up at first of alienated ranchers and industrialists. Continued voting irregularities further decreased faith in the PRI, especially in the case of Cárdenas, who, following his failure to democratize the PRI, ended up as the candidate of a four-party coalition that is believed by many to have won the election. Additionally, the economy did horribly essentially from 1976 to 1994, with an increase in international debt, devaluation of the peso, government cutbacks, discouraged investment (which sunk most small and medium-sized businesses), and the obliteration of gains in income and welfare for the population. Colosio’s assassination, the 1994 devaluation and subsequent depression, government scandals, and Zendillos resignation from the party led the PRI to become lost and widely disliked. In 1997, the PRI lost control of the Chamber of Deputies, and abandoned its constituency of small farmers, migrant workers, and self-employed vendors and shopkeepers to economic disgrace.

3. What are the pros and cons of Fox's "Revolution of Hope"? What changes has Fox been able to make? What parts of the plan will take much longer to achieve?

Fox’s “revolution of hope” aimed to bring the government and citizens to work together to work to secure progress for Mexico. He wanted Mexico to be multiethnic, pluralistic, tolerant, and respectful to political opposition and a free press. Additionally, he wanted to look after the indigenous, handicapped, migrant workers in the US, microentrepreneurs, and working mothers. Fox wanted Mexico to have economic growth high enough to maintain full employment, to reduce inflation, to stabilize the economy, and to establish a common market with the US and Canada that includes a shared currency and labor mobility. Fox planned to address the great disparities afflicting the poor, reduce Latin America’s social and economic dualism, expand education and health services, fund microcredit and industrial programs to link the poor to the national and global export economies, and promote democratic political participation.

Many people, especially leftists, see his plans as “Mexico, Inc.” They are suspicious of his background as a very successful businessman and cabinet appointments. The cabinet appointments in particular were controversial due to potential conflicts of interest—the ministers of communications and finance had worked as executives in companies linked to the telephone monopoly and the banking establishment. There are also fears over an oil monopoly and potential erosion of nationalistic and welfare orientations of the Mexican state.

Fox has was able to pass a budget that included revenue-sharing and an increase in federal antipoverty funds for the states. He has also combated corruption, created a climate of trust for renewing dialogue with the Zapatista guerrillas in Chiapas state, made bold appointments to the National Security Council, and appointed a presidential coordinator of the Citizen Alliance.

His goals to stimulate economic growth in Mexico enough to maintain full employment, reduce inflation, stabilize the economy, and establish a common market with the US and Canada will take much longer. Additionally, his wish to increase the real income of Mexico’s 40 million poor by 50%, reduce the number of those living in poverty from 40 million to 28 million and cut those living in extreme poverty from 18 million to 8 million will also take a significant amount of time to accomplish. His overall goals for the “Revolution of Hope” will collectively take a lot of time, resources, and effort to make reality.

4. How has Mexico become more democratic over the last several decades? Do you think this trend will continue?

Beginning with the PRI, though it was not altogether democratic itself, democratization has been a theme throughout the last several decades. The PRI launched political reforms legalizing marginal opposition parties and opening the Congress to opposition representation, which was a major step in democratization at the time. Additionally, Cárdenas attempted to democratize the PRI and end the dedazo (though he ultimately ended up splitting from the party). Cárdenas’s near election showed a large move towards democratization. The largest movement was obviously the shifting of power from the PRI party to the democratic PAN party. I do think this trend will continue, especially if Mexico continues to make reforms as it has been and parties such as the PAN continue to hold power through fair elections.

AP Comp Gov - Mexico Short Answer

Mexico Short Answer

1. The office of executive consists of a head of government and a head of state.

1. The head of government is head of the executive branch of that country, and generally runs the government, enforces laws, and creates laws. The head of state is mostly a figurehead and carries out ceremonial functions.
2. In Great Britain, the Prime Minister is the head of government. In Mexico, the head of state is the President.
3. In Great Britain, the Prime Minister is in the legislature; in Mexico, the President is separate. Mexico has a multiparty system in which the candidate who receives the most votes is elected president for one six-year term, regardless of whether it’s an absolute majority or not. In Britain, elections are called before 5 years and citizens vote for the party rather than the candidate. Britain uses the first past the post voting method, meaning that the winner with the most votes is elected. In Mexico, the President is the most powerful part of the government and can directly introduce legislation in Congress, veto legislation initiated by Congress, declare war and peace, etc. In Great Britain, the PM is the highest political authority and has legislative as well as executive powers.

2. Mexico and Great Britain have experienced economic liberalization and democratization.

1. Economic liberalization is the process of reducing government interference in the economy. Democratization is when a state transforms to a more democratic state by developing the characteristics of democracy: free and fair elections, basic rights for citizens, political freedom, often a capitalist economy, etc.
2. In Mexico, an example of economic liberalization is the privatization of banks. In Great Britain, an example of this is the transition from Thatcher’s time, when the government controlled a large part of the economy, to the late 1990s when it sold off many business that were previously owned by the government.
3. In Mexico, electoral reform, the fall of the PRI and subsequent development of a true multiparty system, and the establishment of an electoral tribunal have all contributed to making Mexico more democratic. Things such as the Keynesian welfare state and joining the European Union have led to Great Britain’s democratization.
4. Economic liberalization in Mexico, in the case of NAFTA, widened the gap between the poor and rich because many small farmers went out of business due to the low price of US corn.

6. The patron-client system that exists in Mexico is an informal network of political loyalty in which patrons essentially bribe the clients into supporting them politically. Patrons receive votes from the clients, and the clients may receive certain benefits when that leader is elected—for example, the patron may promise a union or an interest group benefits. This has led to behind-the-scenes conflict resolution, distribution of political rewards, and the President’s cabinet to be filled by supporters of camarillas he/she wants to appease.

7.

1. There is a multiparty system in Mexico, with the main parties being the PRI, the PAN, and the PRD. There is direct election of government officials—proportional and first past the post. The main parties have evolved from the PRI’s prolonged rule, some splitting off and some developing as opposition.
2. Because there are multiple parties represented in Congress, it may take longer to pass laws or parties may team up against other parties to get what they want passed.
3. Most importantly, the other major parties have been better represented in elections and congress due to the fall of the PRI and the establishment of electoral reform.

8.

1. The lower house of Congress is the Chamber of Deputies; there are 300 seats directly elected by plurality from single-member districts, and 200 “party deputies” assigned through proportional representation. The Senate (upper house) is composed of 128 senators—2 for each of the 31 districts, and 3 for the federal district. The party with the most votes gets 2 seats, and the party finishing second gets one seat. One benefit is that there is greater representation for the parties due to the electoral process; however, it may be harder to get things done due to the large number of opinions represented in Congress.
2. There are about 750 members in the House of Lords, most of which are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the PM or are hereditary peers. The House of Commons consists of 646 MPs that are democratically elected by voters and represent different constituencies. The political party that wins the most seats in the House of Commons is the governing party and its leader becomes the PM. The FPTP system questions the whole issue of “democratic elections” in that the majoritywill of the people within one constituency may be reflected in the electoral outcome, but more people may vote against a candidate than for them. However, FPTP is simple and effective, the majority of people get what they want and it’s a much easier process than proportional.

AP Comp Gov - Country Specific Vocab

AP Comp Country Specific Vocab

Russia	Terminology
Proletariat	The working class; a social class comprising those who do manual labor for wages
Bourgeoisie	The middle class; between upper and lower.
democratic centralism	Communist party organization in which members take part in policy discussions and elections at all levels but must follow decisions made at higher levels.
Nomenklatura	An upper class informal elite group from which all important political positions were appointed. Membership was associated with loyalty to the Soviet regime, political conservatism, and a number of material benefits.
Marxism	Economic and political theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Held that human actions are economically determined and class struggle is required to create historical change. Also believed that capitalism will ultimately be overcome by communism.
Leninism	Political and economic philosophy of Vladimir Lenin. Based off of Marxism and stressed that imperialism is the highest form of capitalism (which shifts the struggle from developed to underdeveloped countries).
Bolsheviks	A faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party that split from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903. They were the majority faction, and ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Came to power in Russia during the October Revolution in the Russian Revolution of 1917. Founded the Soviet Union.
perestroika	literally means “rebuilding”, this term refers to the political reforms in the USSR by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985.
Glasnost	Can refer to the specific period in the USSR during the 1980s when there was less censorship and greater freedom of information. Generally, the policy of maximal publicity, openness, and transparency in the activities of all government institutions in the Soviet Union, together with freedom of information, introduced by Gorbachev in the late 1980s.
politburo	“political bureau” – the executive branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
Kremlin	the citadel of Moscow, housing the offices of the Russian government. “power center”
State Duma	lower house of the legislative branch of Russia. Introduced by Boris Yeltsin in 1993. Approves the PM, brings charges against the President, appoints and dismisses heads of many organizations such as the Central Bank of Russia.
Federation Council	Upper house of Russia’s parliament. Each of the 84 subjects of Russia send 2 senators. Decides use of armed forces, impeaches the President.
Commonwealth of Independent States	Regional organization consisting of former Soviet republics. Formed during the breakup of the Soviet Union. Possesses coordinating powers in trade, finance, lawmaking, and security. Promotes cooperation on democratization and crime prevention.
shock therapy	An economic policy introduced by Jeffrey Sachs in the early 1990s. He recommended to the countries of the former Soviet Union and Latin America that they end all price controls and subsidies, sell off state assets and float their currencies in order to speed up the economy after the communist era. Example of success: Poland. Productivity increased but so did unemployment. Its GNP was 77% higher in 2008 than in 1989. Decrease in inequality.
gulag	Soviet labor camps for political enemies.
Red Army	Soviet government’s revolutionary militia beginning in the Russian Civil War of 1918-1922. It grew into the national army of the USSR. Called the Soviet Army after 1946.
White Army	political and military Russian forces who unsuccessfully fought the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution, and later fought the Red Army in the Russian Civil War.
semi-presidential model	system of government in which a president and prime minister are both active participants in the day-to-day administration of the state. It has a popularly elected head of state that is not just ceremonial.
Russian Revolution, early communism	Russian Revolution – the coup d’etat by the Bolsheviks under Lenin in November 1917 that led to a period of civil war which ended in Bolshevik victory in 1922. Abdicated Nicholas II, created a provisional government. Early communism – the victorious Bolsheviks later became the Communist Party of Russia.
Stalinism, collectivization, party purges	Stalinism – theory and practice of communism under Joseph Stalin from 1928 to 1953. Associated with a regime of terror and totalitarian rule. The term also often refers to self-proclaimed socialist states that use secret police, propaganda, and bureaucratic central planning of the economy, to enforce their rule. Collectivization – a policy pursued under Stalin between 1928 and 1940, with the goal of consolidating individual land and labour into collective farms. Regarded as the solution to the crisis of agricultural distribution, as it was believed that it would immediately increase the food supply for urban populations. Was basically a failure; peasants got less for their labor than before collectivization. The Great Purge – a series of campaigns of political repression and persecution by Stalin in 1936-1938. Involved a large-scale purge of the Communist Party and Government officials, repression of peasants, Red Army leadership, and the persecution of unaffiliated persons.
Kruschev and deStalinization	Stalin died in 1953, and was succeeded by Krushschev as First Secretary and Malenkov as Premier. De-Stalinization refers to the process of eliminating the cult of personality and Stalinist political system. Ended large-scale forced labor, freed Gulag prisoners, denouncement of dictatorial rule and cult of personality, removal of Stalin’s name from landmarks, reburied Stalin away from the mausoleum.
Brezhnev and entrenched Soviet elites	Eventually succeeds Krushchev as General Secretary of CPSU and head of state of the USSR. Hard-line conservative member of the Communist party. “Détente” is dominant foreign policy in Cold War diplomacy with the US. This ends with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan ordered by Brezhnev in 1979.
Gorbachev	Takes over as general secretary in the mid-80s Leads a younger generation of communists. Educated and more “westernized” than previous Soviet leaders. Initiates a wave of reforms: Glasnost, Perestroika, Democratization
Putin	Previous President of Russia, current Prime Minister.
Medvedev	Putin’s successor as Russia’s President; many consider him Putin’s puppet.
Iran	Terminology
constitutional revolution	Took place between 1905 and 1911. Constitution of 1906 Elections Separation of Powers Laws made by elected legislature Popular sovereignty Bill of Rights guaranteeing citizen equality, protection of the accused, and freedom of expression. Created the Majlis and Guardian Council made Shi’ism official state religion
revolution of 1979	Refers to events involving the overthrow of Iran’s monarchy (the Pahlavi dynasty) under Shah Pahlavi. Replaced it with an Islamic Republic under Khomeini, leader of the revolution. Made Islamic fundamentalism a political force.
Majles	The Iranian Parliament; the legislative body of Iran. 290 representatives. Created by the Iran Constitution of 1906.
“equality with difference”	An attempt by the Islamic Republic to address women’s concerns within a framework of Islamic law. Nullified many of the shah’s laws. Divorce and custody laws followed Islamic standards, and the dress code was introduced.
rentier state	heavily supported by state expenditure, while the state receives “rents” from other countries. The people become unnecessary to the govt.
Theocracy	A country led by a deity; or rather, those thought to be divinely guided.
Farsi	The language spoken in much of the Middle East.
Supreme Leader	Links together the three branches of government. He is the leading faqih. Determines the interests of Islam. Declares war and peace.
Guardian Council	Represent theocratic principles within the government. Review bills passed by Majlis to ensure they conform with Islamic law. Together with the Supreme Leader they exercise the principle of jurist’s guardianship.
cultural revolution	followed the 1979 Islamic Revolution. The academia of Iran was purged of Western and non-Islamic influences to bring it in line with Shia Islam.
Shah	King of Kings. Leader of Iran until the Iranian Revolution of 1979.
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini	Led the Islamic Revolution and is currently the Supreme Leader.
Safavid Dynasty	Established Shi’ite identity in Iran; by mid-17th century converted 90% of population to Shi’ism. Tolerated “people of the book” – monotheistic religions based on holy books similar to the Qur’an. Serious economic problems due to breakup of the Silk Road Had no money for a large bureaucracy or standing army. Relied on local rulers to maintain order and collect taxes Claimed absolute power but lacked a central state. Monarchy became separated from society and lost power by 1722.
Qajar Dynasty	Turkish people that reconquered Iran at the end of the 18th century. Moved the capital to Tehran. Shi’ite clerical leaders could claim more power as interpreters of Islam, separation between government and religion widened. Suffered land loss to European empires of the 19th century. Sold oil rights to the British in the southwest. Iranians upset over shah’s lavish lifestyle look for change that would be initiated by bankers and businessmen; shah led country into serious debt.
Shiite – shi'ism (v. Sunni)	after Muhammad’s death they felt that leadership of the Muslims should be hereditary and passed to Muhammad’s son in law, Ali. Sunnis favored choosing a caliph from the accepted Sunni leadership. When Ali was killed the Shi’ites became a minority, but they kept their separate identity. True heirs of Islam were the descendants of Ali. The heirs, Imams, continued until the 9th century, when the 12th descendent disappeared as a child – the Hidden Imam.
faqih (velayat-e-faqih)	jurist’s guardianship – making sure things adhere to Islamic law.
Fundamentalism	Literal interpretation of Islamic texts Social conservatism Political traditionalism.
Jurist's Guardianship	Senior clergy given authority over entire Shi’ia community.
Muhammad Khatami	Led the Iranian Militant Clerics Society, a left wing reform party. His brother led the Islamic Iran Participation Front, a reformist party. Elected president in 1997, served until 2005.
conservatives v. reformists
Reza Khan	Overthrew Qajar dynasty in 1925. Claims himself shah-in-shah in 1925, establishing the Pahlavi dynasty.
Muhammad Reza Pahlavi	Becomes shah in 1941 via his father Reza Khan passing it to him. Forms Resurgence Party, claiming that Iran was a one-party state and naming himself the head of it.
Pahlavi Dynasty	By early 1920s, Iran was in political and economic disarray. The Majlis was divided by quarreling factions. Iran divided into three parts after WWI with Russia and GB each occupying a third of the country. Cossack Brigade led by Reza Khan carries out a coup d’etat in 1921; claims himself shah-in-shah in 1925, establishing the Pahlavi dynasty. Reestablished authoritarian rule in Iran. Majlis loses its power. Reza Shah passes power to his son, Muhammad Reza Shah, in 1941. Shah being challenged domestically, taken out by Mossadeq. Shah reinstated by CIA in 1953 by ousting Mossadeq. In the Pahlavi dynasty, Iran became a rent-seeking state because of increasing income from oil. Received increasing revenue from exporting oil and leasing oil fields to foreign countries. The shah promoted import substitution policies, but by 1979 oil and associated industries made up 97% of foreign exchange and the majority of Iran’s GNP. Oil revenue was so great that the government did not have to rely on taxes to generate income; paid expenses from oil profits.
White Revolution	“White” to counter influence of “red” communists Land reform – govt bought land from large absentee owners and sold it to farmers at affordable prices. Encourage agricultural entrepreneurship with irrigation canals, dams, and tractors Women’s rights – suffrage, restricting polygamy, women allowed to work outside the home.
Ayatollah Ali Khamenei	Succeeds Khomeini, does not have the same political charisma. Supreme Leader.
Muhammad Mossadegh(q)	Overthrew the shah but was overthrown himself by the CIA. Headed the National Front reformist policy.
Ayatollah Hasemi Rafsanjani	Fourth President of Iran (1989-97). Currently the Chairman of the Assembly of Experts and Chairman of the Expediency Council.
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad	Current President of Iran. Elected as a result of fraud. Nuclear policy is controversial.
Sharia law	Laws of Islam
“Tehran Spring”	Green movement
Assembly of (Religious) Experts	Directly elected by the people. 4 year terms. Candidates subject to approval by Council of Guardians. Responsibilities: Broad constitutional interpretation. Reserve right to remove supreme leader.
“axis of evil”	Term coined by Dubya referring to Iran, Iraq, and North Korea. “Beyond the Axis” include Cuba, Libya, and Syria.
Iran-Iraq War	1980 to 1988. Iraq invaded Iran following a long history of border disputes. Iraq was aiming to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state. Within several months were repelled by the Iranians, and for the next six years Iran was on the offensive.
Expediency Council	Created by Khomeini. Main purpose to referee disputes between Guardian Council and Majlis. 32 members, may originate its own legislation, not all members are clerics, appointed by Supreme Leader, collectively most powerful men in Iran
Mexico	Terminology
revolution of 1910-1917	Influences: Patron-client system, constitution of 1917, conflict with Catholic church, establishment of the PRI. Patron Client System – in an effort to unseat Diaz, caudillos rose to challenge eachother for power. Popular leaders Villa and Zapata emerged leading peasant armies. Around each leader a patron client system emerged that involved large numbers of citizens. Many caudillos were assassinated, including Villa and Zapata. Large numbers of followers were killed in the competition among the caudillos. The Constitution of 1917 ended the revolution, but violence and political assassinations continued. The Mexican constitution was very long and easily amended. Set up structure for Democratic government; the political institutions resembled those of the US. Three branches of government, competitive elections, most public officials directly elected by the people.
“Mexican Miracle”	By the 1950s, Mexico welcomed foreign investment, and until the 1980s the GNP experienced spectacular growth. This so-called “miracle” was based largely on huge supplies of natural gas and oil.
Camarillas	Hierarchical network, including the exchange of offices and other benefits. Within the PRI, up until the election of 2000, most positions within the president’s cabinet were filled by supporters or heads of camarillas that the president wanted to appease. Peasants in camarillas received jobs, financial assistance, family advice, and food and shelter in return for votes for the PRI.
Caudillos	Military-political leaders with strong-armed tactics. Example: Porfirio Diaz
Tecnicos	Educated, business-oriented leaders usually with degrees in economics, political science, business, etc. Tecnicos in the PRI espouse the free-market approach to politics.
Neoliberalism	Mexico had settled into this by the 1980s. Free markets, balanced budgets, privatization, free trade, limited government intervention in the economy.
politicos	old style caciques who headed camarillas
mestizo	ethnic mixture of European and indigenous peoples.
Zapatista Rebellion	(Chiapas Rebellion) 1994. Reminded Mexicans that some people still lived in appalling conditions, and poverty and lack of education were still serious problems.
corporatist structure	interest groups woven into the structure of the party. Party has ultimate authority, but other voices heard by bringing interest groups under the umbrella of the party. Structure is not democratic, but allows for more input into government than other types of authoritarianism. Particularly since Cardenas peasant and labor organizations have been represented in the party and hold positions of responsibility.
sexenio	president can only serve a six year term
NAFTA	North American Free Trade Agreement
Anticlericalism	Opposed to the influence of religion, particularly Catholicism, on politics.
Felipe Calderon	PAN candidate who won the 2006 election, following PAN president Vicente Fox. Platform: regional autonomy, less government intervention in the economy, clean and fair elections, good rapport with the Catholic Church, support for private and religious education.
Vicente Fox	President of Mexico from 2000 to 2006. PAN candidate (right of center), supporting regional autonomy, less gov’t intervention in the economy, clean and fair elections, good rapport with the Catholic church, and support for private and religious education.
Lazaro Cardenas	President of Mexico from 1934 to 1940. Banned capital punishment.
debt crisis	Government borrowed heavily in order to industrialize. Most of the economic growth based on oil economy. Oil plummet in 1982 caused Mexican economy to plummet as well. 1987: Mexico over $107 billion in debt; debt represented 70% of GNP.
Maquiladora	Mexican corporation which operates under a maquila program approved for it by the Mexican government. A maquila program entitles the company to foreign investment participation in the capital, and in management of up to 100% without need of any special authorization. It entitles the company to special customs treatment, allowing duty free import of equipment, with the guarantee that such goods would not remain in Mexico permanently.
PEMEX	Giant, government controlled oil company which Fox tried unsuccessfully to privatize.
state capitalism	a society wherein the productive forces are controlled and directed by the state in a capitalist manner, even if the state calls itself socialist.
Pendulum Theory	Back and forth effect in Mexican politics from socialist reform to free market economic development and back again. The pendulum appeared to stop by the 1970s with the emergence of the tecnicos.
China	Terminology
Chinese Communist Party	Founding and ruling political party of China.
Han Chinese	Largest single ethnic group in the world. 92% of the population of China and 98% of the population of Taiwan, 78% of the population of Singapore, and 20% of the world population.
Confucianism	Chinese philosophical and religious tradition stressing order and hierarchy.
Hu Jintao	Currently the Paramount Leader of the PRC; General Secretary since 2002, President of China since 2003, Chairman of the CMC since 2004. Authoritarian tendencies, massive human rights violations, suppression of free speech, and brutal silencing of dissidents.
Cultural Revolution	The period of upheaval in China from the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s. Launched by Mao Zedong, and ended with his death in 1976. Resulted in nation-wide chaos and economic disarray and stagnation. Carried out largely by the Red Guard; intended to eliminate counterrevolutionary elements in the government; purged intellectuals.
iron rice bowl	refers to an occupation with guaranteed job security, as well as steady income and benefits.
Maoism, Mao Zedong	Maoism is the doctrines of Mao Zedong. A combination of Marxism and Leninism, and notes that a continuous revolution is necessary if the leaders of a communist state are to be kept in touch with the people.
Danwei	Work unit. The basic level organization through which party and government officials control social, political, and economic behavior of citizens. Typically controls the allocation of housing, grain, edible oil, and cotton rations; the issuance of permits to travel, to marry, and to bear or adopt children; and permission to enter the army, party, and university, as well as to change employment.
Jiang Zemin	General Secretary from 1989 to 2002, President from 1993 to 2003, Chairman of the CMC from 1989 to 2004.
market-based socialism	Economic systems of China and Vietnam. Aims at providing greater equality over the means of production.
Deng Xiaoping Theory	“It doesn’t matter whether a cat is white or black as long as it catches mice” 4 modernizations: industry, agriculture, science, military. Open door trade policy, reforms in education, institutionalization of the Revolution.
Long March	12,500 km long trek made by the Red Army. It was during this march that Mao Zedong gained influence in the party.
dynastic cycles	In China, a dynasty would remain in power only as long as it was providing good government. When it went into decline and began to abuse its power, it would lose the Mandate of Heaven. A strong leader would then emerge to claim the Mandate, and establish a new dynasty, restarting the cycle.
Mandate of Heaven	those in power were given the right to rule from a divine source
dictatorship of the proletariat	The temporary period following the fall of capitalism characterized by a struggle to achieve a classless, stateless, and moneyless communist society.
“Middle Kingdom” zhongguo	Both are names for China.
autonomous regions	self-governing regions
floating population	internal migration within China.
Nationalist Party	Political party of Taiwan. Anti-communism, conservatism, center-right, Chinese nationalism, three principles of the people.
National Party Congress	Party congress held once every 5 years. Theoretically the highest body in China, but in practice important decisions are made before the meeting. Mostly symbolic.
Central Committee	Highest authority within the communist party. Elected by the Party National Congresses. Has about 300 members and appoints the Politburo.
Four Modernizations	The core of a development strategy aimed at turning the country into a relatively advanced industrialized nation by the year 2000. Modernized agriculture, industry, science and technology, and national defense.
parallel hierarchies
Central Military Commission	National defense organization of China.
“Gang of Four”	Radical leaders in China during the Cultural Revolution. Led by Mao’s wife.
Chiang Kai-shek	Nationalist president of China before 1949 and later of the government in exile on Taiwan.
Guanxi	Connections; relationships; one’s social or business network.
People's Liberation Army	Military organization of all forces in China. Formally under the command of the CMC.
Collectivism	The principles or system of ownership and control of the means of production and distribution by the people collectively, usually under the supervision of a government.
Great Leap Forward	A drive to increase industrial and agricultural production following the suspension of Soviet aid and the desire to modernize and catch up with the rest of the world. Late 1950s by Mao Zedong. Emphasis was placed on accelerated collectivization of agriculture, national self-sufficiency, and labor-intensive methods. Was a huge failure, resulting in waste of resources and famine.
National People’s Congress	Highest state body and only legislative house in China. Gathers once a year. Elected in accordance with democratic centralism.
politburo	chief executive and political committee of the Communist Party
standing committee	permanent organ of the NPC and functions between annual sessions.
Special Economic Zones	Small areas established beginning in 1979 to promote economic development and introduction of advanced technology through foreign investment. Have greater decision-making power in economic activities than provincial-level units. Market regulation is primary.
Wen Jiabao	Current premier of the state council of China. Serves as the head of government and leads the cabinet.
township	basic government administrative unit below the county level in rural areas. Each has a people’s congress and an elected chairman.
Village	Replaced production brigades from 1982-85 as the lowest-level semiofficial government entity. They provide bureaucratic coordination and welfare payments, as well as settle disputes. Party branches are typically organized at the village level.
one-child policy	Policy established to control population growth. Only allows each couple to have one child.
Nigeria	Terminology
prebendalism
Patron-Clientelism	Clientelism – exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients; corruption becomes problematic. Example: in Nigeria, in exchange for support a president may grant his clients a portion of the oil revenues.
distributive policies
derivation formula
Sani Abacha	Corrupt military authoritarian leader
Atiku Abubakar	Fought for fairness, justice, and equity with democratic reforms, such as no detention without trial.
Olusegun Obasanjo	Military ruler 4 year plan for democratic transition, established the FEC for fair elections, wrote a constitution, eased ethnic tension, increased autonomy. Second term: Democratic reforms to cut back corruption, but tried to extend his term. Ruled 1976-1979, and then 1999-2007.
Yar Adua	Election fraud accusations
Sharia law	Main body of civil and criminal law in Muslim majority states.
People's Democratic Party (PDP)	Well-established party, began running candidates in 1998. Party of President Obasanjo (Northern Igbo Christian) Obasanjo received 62% of votes in the 2003 election. PDP gained majority in National Assembly Due to voter fraud, it is difficult to determine the accurate level of support for the PDP
Biafran War	Southeastern provinces of Nigeria attempted to secede and become the Republic of Biafra. Caused by economic, ethnic, cultural, religious conflict.
Yoruba, Hausa-Fulani, Igbo	All three are ethnic groups and languages spoken in Nigeria.
Oyo Kingdom	Established by the Yoruba and is today southeastern Nigeria. Trade wealth and a powerful cavalry.
Sokoto Caliphate	Islamic spiritual community. Founded in the late 1700s, has since lost influence.
federal character principle	Recognition of all ethnic, religious, and regional groups. Nigerian Constitutional Provisions Senators represent diverse states Representatives elected from diverse districts President must receive 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the districts.
First, Second, Third, Fourth Republic	2nd, 3rd, 4th republics (all since 1979) had presidential system with a strong executive theoretically checked by bicameral legislature and independent judiciary.
Indirect rule	Caused by British colonialism. With chiefs leading on behalf of British government (Authoritarian rule under British direction).
Niger River Delta	Oil controversy, oil war. Home of diverse cultural groups.
Ken Saro-Wiwa	Executed for speaking publicly about the environmental damage caused by oil extraction.
Patrimonialism	Generals/Presidents head of patron-client system. Dispense government jobs and resources as rewards to political supporters. Cabinet positions and bureaucratic chiefs part of president’s patronage system Patrimonialism in Nigeria is unstable which has led to recurring coups.
UK	Terminology
United Kingdom	England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales.
Party Discipline	Very important; if party members do not support their party leadership, the gov’t may fall into crisis.
common law	a law established by following earlier judicial decisions.
The Commonwealth	Was the republic which ruled first England, and then Ireland and Scotland until 1660.
Collective Responsibility/Collectivist Consensus	Began during WW2 with Churchill’s emphasis on putting aside class differences to work together to defeat Germany. Churchill headed an all-party coalition government during WW2. The spirit of collective consensus continued beyond the war well into the 1960s. Both Labour and Conservative parties supported the development of the modern welfare system.
question hour	the hour the prime minister and his cabinet must defend themselves from inquisitive attacks from the opposition party as well as direct inquiry from members of his/her own party.
Northern Ireland	Long history of conflict between England and Ireland, mostly over religion. After the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell attempted to impose Protestantism on the mostly Catholic Ireland. After WWI, home rule was granted to Ireland except for the northeast corner where Protestants outnumbered Catholics 6 to 4. Home rule was granted largely because of the IRA which used guerrilla tactics against British forces to secure independence In 1949 the bulk of Ireland officially became independent. Northern Ireland remains under British control. There continues to be a great deal of conflict between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland.
Third Way – Blairism	Adopted by Tony Blair in the late 1990s. Moderate. Centrist alternative to “Old Labour” party on left and Conservative party on right. Attempting to redefine and balance following policy issues: Evolving relationship between gov’t and economy British relationship with EU Balancing act between the US and EU Devolution
Backbenchers	Less influential members of both parties sit in the rear benches on both sides of the meeting as well
IRA/Sinn Fein	Irish Republican Army – Used guerrilla tactics against British forces to secure Irish independence. Sinn Fein – political party of the IRA.
Beveridge Report	Adopted by both parties during the war made all citizens eligible for health, unemployment, pension, and other welfare benefits.
CBI (Coalition of Business and Industry)	A coalition of business groups and private interests, usually supportive of the Conservative party.
TUC (Trade Union Congress)	A coalition of trade unions generally associated with the Labour Party. Has traditionally been a force in British politics. Had a great deal of political power at one time and the government often consulted them on important party decisions.
Conservative Party/Tories	Dominant party in GB between WW2 and late 1990s. Main party on the right. Traditionally pragmatic as opposed to ideological. Historically has supported a market controlled economy, privatization, and fewer social welfare programs – symbolized by Thatcher in the 1980s. Under PM John Major (1990-1997) gravitated towards center and away from Thatcherism. Characterized by Noblesse Oblige. Power centered in London. Party organization viewed as elitist. Leadership must submit to annual leadership elections. Weakened by party division in the late 1990s: Traditional Wing (Tories) – values noblesse oblige and elitism, supports Britain’s membership in the EU. Thatcherite Wing – strict conservatives, support full free market, known as “Euroskeptics”, feel EU threatens British sovereignty.
Monarchy	A state ruled or headed by a monarch. Usually a symbolic, traditional position.
Gordon Brown	Current Prime Minister – head of the Labour Party.
Prime Minister	“first among equals”. Member of Parliament and leader of majority party. Speaks legitimately for all members of Parliament. Chooses cabinet ministers and important subordinate posts. Makes decisions in cabinet (with consent of ministers). Campaigns for and represents the party in parliamentary elections. Shapes cabinet decisions into policy.
David Cameron	Head of the Conservative (Tory) party.
Parliament	Legislature of Britain.
Shadow Cabinet	Influential members of the opposition party sit facing Cabinet members of majority party on the opposing side.
Cabinet	Collective cabinet is the center of policy-making in the British political system. As leaders of majority party elected by the people, they take “collective responsibility” for making the policies of the country.
Good Friday Agreement	Established a parliament for Northern Ireland, but it was shut down by London in 2003 when violence broke out again in northern Ireland.
Thatcherism	Rightist reforms instituted by Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s. Privatized business and industry, cut back on social welfare programs, strengthened national defense (staunch anticommunist), got tough with labor unions in response to Labour Party’s distinct movement left which had strengthened labor unions politically. Returned to market force controls on the economy, resisted complete integration into the EU, replaced property tax on houses with a poll tax on individual adults, froze income tax increases, foreign policy dominated by securing British interests internationally.
House of Commons	Party that receives the majority of the plurality of the votes becomes the Majority Party in Parliament, the party with the second most votes becomes the loyal opposition. Set up with long benches facing eachother. PM sits in the middle.
House of Lords	Parliamentary house Hereditary peers – hold seats that have been passed down through family ties over the centuries. Life peers – people appointed to nonhereditary positions as a result of distinguished service to Britain. Since the start of the 20th century the House of Lords’ only powers are to delay legislation, to debate technicalities of proposed bills, and to add amendments to legislation (which are subject to the house of commons). Virtually powerless.
Magna Carta	1215 – King John agreed to consult the nobles before he made important decisions, especially regarding taxes. Began restrictions on the monarch; they are not above the law.
Vote of Confidence	Vote on a key issue within a party. If the issue is not supported, the cabinet by tradition must resign immediately, and new elections for MPs must be held ASAP. This is usually avoided by settling policy differences within majority party membership. If the party loses a vote of confidence, all MPs lose their jobs, so there is plenty of motivation to vote the party line.
Devolution	The turning over of some political power and autonomy to regional governments. Supported by the Labour Party since the 1970s. Thatcher’s administration blocked the idea during her time as prime minister. Was revisited under Tony Blair’s New Labour.